1. Dolores Hidalgo is hailed as the “Father of the Nation” whose speeches gave courage to an entire nation. He is considered to be precursor and creator of the rest of the heroes of the Mexican War of independence. The story about him is deeply embedded into the political and educational system of the country for years to come. Yet, achievement of independence would have been impossible without the endeavors of the liberal insurgents who adhered to resist tyranny. These people rarely have been in the limelight while the history is replete with stories about a few famous individuals.
墨西哥独立之父（用处：领导者应该具备的素质、个人与群体对历史的影响）
2. Cyrus West Field was an American businessman who led the Atlantic Telegraph Company which laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable. Against all odds, Field adhered to finish the engineer even if the first cable broke down only three weeks afterward. As a result, the transatlantic telegraph cable sped up communication to within minutes which could only happen over ship before, integrating two continents into one world.
美国大商人菲尔德（用处：领导或者人需要的坚忍不拔的精神、商家应该给社会带来回报、技术给人们带来的变化）
3. One example that aptly illustrates this point involves Ozone destruction which is on count of the human activities of increasing the green gas emissions. As a famous saying goes, “progress is the activity of today and the assurance of tomorrow.”(Emerson, American thinker) If government takes the problems about the damage to the Ozone from the green gas emissions in advance and seriously, we may get rid of the Ozone destruction while enjoying the fruits of industrialization.
臭氧层的破坏
4. The majorities always focus on the Nixon's Watergate affair which will most likely overshadow the entire achievements of his administration.
丑闻无用水门事件
5. Media scrutiny killed Princess Diana as her car crashed into the pillar of the tunnel for getting rid of the trailing from the journalists.
丑闻杀死了戴安娜
6. The Watergate affair can underscore this point. In retrospect, while the scandal tarnish the public image of legal profession, it revealed the existence of dirty political tricks and sparked a renewed call for changes in campaign financing. Obviously, our society would be the beneficiary of the changes.
丑闻有用水门事件
7. For every new technology we harness the power of that helps reduce social problems is another that serves to add to those problems. Consider, for example, the nuclear energy serves to provide a new kind of resource at the cost of thousands of persons’ lives.
技术带来的弊端 核能
8. A city is an animated person, having past and stories, stands in the world. The old architectures provide vivid proofs and concrete scenes for persons to see and feel its existence while the words and pictures cannot. For instance, for those who want to experience the local customs as well as the history and culture of Beijing, the Siheyuan (quadrangle) is an indispensible part of a visit as unique Beijing architectural structures. Actually, it’s not only a kind of architecture, but also serves as a window into Beijing folk life and the encyclopedia of the history and culture of Beijing.
历史建筑的意义 （也可用到旅游上）
9. Michael Dell dropped out of university when he was 19 to run a computer company, which later became Dell Computer Corporation. Despite a number of setbacks, Dell survives in the race to pursue the dream of his career.
戴尔奋斗起家，辍学创业
10. Keynes laid the foundation for the branch of economics termed “Macroeconomics” today which is based on the theories of David Ricardo.
凯恩斯的理论是建立在李嘉图的理论之上的，历史过去和他人的研究对现在的帮助
11. Churchill was always hailed for his speeches which gave courage to an entire nation and inspired allied forces. Yet, it’s unimaginable that he was suffering from the stammer during his childhood.
丘吉尔小时候哑巴后来演说家
12. One apt illustration of this point involves the Nazism. In retrospect, many ethnic Germans felt deeply committed to the goal of creating the greater Germany, which some believe required the use of military force to achieve. To a certain extent, the Second World War stems from the Germen’s exorbitant respect to the history of their nation and the origin of their race.
过于热爱自己国家的历史为带来灾难 纳粹
13. Mendel, who is hailed as the father of genetics, prompted the foundation of genetics through his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. But the significance of Mendel’s work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th.
研究的意义可能很久以后才能被挖掘出来 孟德尔
14. The slogan “One Man, One Vote” was a rallying cry for the campaign which demands for suffrage reform and guarantee that every citizen in Northern Ireland be afforded the same number of votes for elections. The policy may not change people’s daily lives immediately, but exerts a profound influence on people’s living mentality and give a powerful confidence to them that their nation is fair and democratic which definitely indirectly make people’s daily lives different.
选票制度的改革给人们的生活带来了巨大的变化
15. Leukaemia白血病 以前的绝症现在可以治疗了
16. Van Gogh, whose still life paintings are marked an unprecedented price for 50 million, sold only one of his paintings during his entire life.
梵高一生之中只卖掉一幅画 坚持的精神、依靠兴趣坚持下去、后人的评价才客观
17. One example aptly illustrate this point involves that the book “The Art of War”, a Chinese military treatise written during 6th century BC by Sun Tzu, also exerts a huge influence on Eastern military thinking and business tactics to make the commanders and leaders more effective and wise.
孙子兵法 古代的东西仍然有用 吸收其他学科的知识
18. Bell, an eminent scientist and innovator, whose yearning to communicate made the telephones ringing around the world possible, sped up the communication in the world within minutes. In retrospect, his friends told him to study in the telegraph, but he didn’t. The desire to help desire make him immerge in the efforts to study on the hearing and speech and never stop research in pursuit of the goals even when he is millionaire for the telephones.
贝尔 发明电话 坚持自己听他人意见成功的例子，决定帮助人群而不是兴趣带来成功的例子
19. Marcel Duchamp, a French artist whose endeavor exerts a profound influence on the development of western art, sparked a boon for the surrealist movement. In retrospect, he often challenged convention thoughts about arts through subversive actions such as naming a urinal “Fountain” and bringing it to the museum for exhibiting.
He said: “Art may be bad, good or indifferent, but, whatever, adjective is used, we must call it art and bad art is still art in the same way as a bad emotion is still an emotion.”
艺术家马塞尔杜尚把尿壶当艺术品，颠覆传统，创新，不需要努力只要开放就可以成功 艺术类所有题目都可以用
20. Guernica is a painting by the Spanish painter Picasso, showing the booming of Guernica by German boomers and reminding us that wars breed ruin and misery.
现实对艺术的影响，艺术反应现实
21. Rembrandt, a Dutch painter and etcher during the “Dutch Golden Age” who is considered to be the most important artist in Dutch history, have achieved youthful success and his paintings were popular throughout his lifetime.
当代人认可的大艺术家 家里有钱
22. Jan Vermeer, a Dutch Baroque painter who creates a world more perfect than any he had witnessed, seems never to have been wealthy since he have never sold one of his paintings during his lifetime and left his family no legacy but debt. After have been virtually forgotten for nearly one hundred years, his paintings begin to focus people’s attention and nowadays he is considered to be one of the greatest painters during the Dutch Golden Age.
不被当代人认可的艺术家 穷困潦倒 画的主题是爱
23. M. C. Escher, a great Dutch graphic artist who excelled at drawing but got poor grades in school, exerts a profound influence on graphic arts. Escher never got normal mathematic training after he leave secondary school, but his graphic works are adorable to the mathematicians.
没有数学底子的艺术家的作品被数学家青睐
24. 通过观察差异而成功的例子
达尔文的进化论 没有加拉帕戈斯群岛上的不同物种的启发，达尔文的进化论也许就不会出现在人类的历史当中
Without the inspiration of different species on the Galapagos, Darwin`s theory of evolution may disappear in human history.
遗传定律 孟德尔没有豌豆杂交后出现的不同性状，就不会有遗传定律的问世
Without the different traits of pea after hybridization, there might have not been the law of the advent of genetic.
25. 通过寻找共同点而成功的例子
没有水壶盖的启示，没有蒸汽原理的应用，就不会有蒸汽机的伟大发明。
Without the inspiration of bottle cap and the application of the principle of steam, Watt might have invented the steam engine.
没有对于蝙蝠超声波的研究，就不会有雷达的出现。
Without research of the bat, there might not have been radars used in a variety of domains.
26. 赚很多钱但对社会造成破坏的例子
美国华尔街传奇人物、纳斯达克股票市场公司前董事会主席伯纳德•麦道夫，11日晨因涉嫌证券欺诈遭警方逮捕。
United States Wall Street legend, Nasdaq Stock Market former chairman, Bernard Michael Adolf is rich and successful. However, he cheated investors rather than made a contribution to society, resulting in being arrested by police.
27. 不稳定的社会对极端行为如何反应的例子
In Somalia, a troublous and anarchic country, there are a lot of extremists and millions of people die in the battles between extremists.
28. 一个被当代人否定而被后人肯定的例子
Von Gogh was not accepted by the people of world in his time and his work was considered no artistic value until hundreds of years after he had died. Copernicus`s heliocentric theory was not accepted until hundreds of years after he had been persecuted by government to death.
29. 需要想象里才能成功的例子
Without imagination, Einstein couldn`t have come up with the theory of relativity. Without imagination, Dante was not able to complete the excellent Divina Commedia.
Without imagination, we cannot enjoy the fantastic novel written by Verne.
30. 需要逻辑能力才能成功的例子
Newton`s great achievements are based on the studies done by predecessors such as Copernicus and Bruno.
31. 城市的标志性古建筑的例子
Paris has Arc De Triomphe. Beijing has the Forbidden City. New York has State of Liberty. Sydney has the Sydney Opera House.
32. 沙文主义的例子
纳粹德国疯狂的屠杀犹太人，认为自己是最为优秀的民族，这对世界造成的危害是深远的。
Crazy Nazi massacred of Jews, advocating they the best in the world. What they did made millions of people caught in dire straits and resulted in social unrest.
33. 当权过久而昏庸腐败的领导者的例子
路易十六执政18年，残暴昏庸，奢华无度，这是由于他的执政期间的种种暴行导致了法国大革命的爆发。
Louis XVI, who was brutal and fatuous, was in power for 18 years. His life was extravagant. It is his atrocities that led to the outbreak of the French Revolution.
34. 成功后又失败的例子
年轻时的瓦特积极思考，善于观察，发明出了世界上第一台蒸汽机，然而他晚年的时候却利用自己的职权阻碍蒸汽机的发展，没有在自己的领域更进一步。
Young Watt was good at observing and he invented the first steam engine in history. While he used his powers to suppress new ideas when he was old, hindering the development of steam engines.
35. 多次失败后成功的例子
Sandoz, the KFC founder, did a lot of jobs when he was young. However none of those jobs made him success. Unemployment was common practice for him, but he never gave up. One day, he received a pension check about 105 dollars. It is the 105 dollars that he used to set up the KFC which is one of the most famous fast food shops in the world now.
36. 传统与现代化为一体的例子
Beijing is famous for the Forbidden City, the Great Wall, and other traditional architectures. Besides, Beijing is also famous for the Olympic Games, the modern buildings and so on. Beijing is a combination of traditional and modern city.
37. 意外发现成功的例子
X ray is discovered by Roentgen by accident. The discovery played an important role in human history and made contribution to medical and astronomy.
38. 对于目标的追求而导致成功的例子
Bill Gates determined to set up a computer empire when he was young, and he worked hard for his dream. He even dropped out from Harvard to set up the Microsoft cooperation. Now he became the richest man in the world and almost every computer uses the operating system developed by his company.
39. 通过竞争成功 可口可乐 有意培养的 百事可乐 这么一个竞争对手
In 1931, Pepsi Cola Company was on the brink of bankruptcy, Caleb Bradham, its president, once tried to sell the company to Coca Cola Company and he was rejected. However, just when Pepsi was on the horns of a dilemma, it received the financial assistance from Coca Cola and rode out of the storm of crisis. Then the two cola companies start the competition for over eighty years. Now the tow companies occupy the three quarter of the market share of the cola business in the world.
40. 成功来自团体
The Human Genome Project initially headed by James Watson in 1990 has assembled many research centers from six counties and hundreds of researchers all over the world to identify all the genes of the human-being. In 2003, all the genome has been completely mapped eventually.
41. 由模仿开始成功
Claude Monet, the founder of French impressionist painting, was first famous for his charcoal characters, but soon he was appealed by the paintings of Johan Jongkind, and imitated many works of Johan. His painting style was profoundly influenced by Johan. Many years later Monet created his own painting style and then become the founder of impressionism in France.
42. 开始不被人认同
Johann Sebastian Bach, one of the greatest Baroque composers, was not recognized as a famous composer by people at that time. His works are ignored for about eighty years after his death, but it was Felix Mendelssohn who did the most to revive the Bach’s reputation with the performance of the St. Matthew Passion. Since then people began to respect Bach’s work.
43. 引进他人
John Keynes, the British economist, laid the foundation for the branch of economic termed “Macroeconomics” today. However, his theory is based on the theory of “Invisible Hand” from another economist Adam Smith. Nowadays, his theory has had a far-reaching impact on modern economics and politics.
44. 成功来自个人
Almost everyone pursues art or literature achieved their successes independently. Margaret Mitchell, who won the Pulitzer Prize in 1937 for her novel Gone with the Wind, begun her writing while she broke her ankle and recuperated at home. She wrote the book totally for her own amusement and kept the book secret from all her friends. Until she completed all the chapters, she acquainted others with her work.
45. 预期不够
Hurricane Katrina of the 2005, one of the deadliest storms in US history, struck New Orleans with severe loss of life and property damage and most of the damage are due to the subsequent floods. However, several years ago engineer from Louisiana have ever suggested construct a new drainage and levee system for New Orleans, but the government rejected the suggestion due to the ecology concern
46. 靠外表获得成功
In 1915, Earl Dean, the designer of Coca Cola Company, designed the famous “contour bottle” in order to distinguish the cola bottle from other beverage bottles. This fashionable design was hard to imitate and appealed the young which the most important consumer groups. During the subsequent years, this design changed little and brought the company enormous profits.
47. 愚忠
Nicolas Chauvin, a French soldier and patriot who famous for his love and devotion for Napoleon has been wounded seventeen times in his nation’s service resulting his severe disfigurement and maiming, but it has earned him only ridicule and derision in Restoration France.
48. 独立成功
Yves Saint Laurent, the famous French fashion designer, once served for Christian Dior since 1936. His talent was recognized soon and he was given a good emolument, however, in 1965, he set up his own brand, Yves Saint Laurent. Today, YSL has become a famous fashion brand equally popular to Christian Dior.
49. 通过合作
Louis Daguerre was a French artist and chemist recognized for his invention of daguerreotype. However, his invention is a result of cooperation with another French inventor, Nicephore Niepce, which was also a photography lover. They utilized and refined the discovery of exposure principle.
50. 忠诚好
Swiss Guard is the Swiss soldiers who served as bodyguards. They have a high reputation for discipline and loyalty to their employers. On May 6, 1527, 189 guards including their commander involve in a battle near German Graveyard and 147 of them died in the battlefield in order to help the pope escape during Sack of Rome.
Monday, July 12, 2010
Friday, June 18, 2010
Gorgeous Sentenses II
1. That sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the descendants an individual will have and hence the number of gene copies transmitted.
2. Hardy’s weakness derived from his apparent inability to control the comings and goings of these divergent impulses and from his unwillingness to cultivate and sustain the energetic and risky ones.
3. Virginia Woolf’s provocative statement about her intentions in writing Mrs. Dalloway has regularly been ignored by the critics, since it highlights an aspect of her literary interests very different from the traditional picture of the “poetic” novelist concerned with examining states of reverie and vision and with following the intricate pathways of individual consciousness.
4. As she put in The Common Readers, “It is safe to say that not a single law has been framed or one stone set upon another because of anything Chaucer said or wrote; and yet, as we read him, we are absorbing morality at every pore.
5. With the conclusion of a burst of activity, the lactic acid level is high in the body fluids, leaving the large animal vulnerable to attack until the acid is recovered, via oxidative metabolism, by the liver into glucose, which is then sent (in part) back into the muscles for glycogen resynthesis.
6. Although Gutman admits that forced separation by sale was frequent, he shows that the slaves’ preference, revealed most clearly on plantations where sale was infrequent, was very much for stable monogamy.
7. Gutman argues convincingly that the stability of the black family encouraged the transmission of–and so was crucial in sustaining–the Black heritage of folklore, music, and religious expression from one generation to another, a heritage that slaves were continuingly fashioning out of their African and American experience.
8. This preference for exogamy, Gutman suggests, may have derived from West African rules governing marriage, which, though they differed from one tribal group to another, all involved some kind of prohibition against unions with close kin.
9. His thesis works relatively well when applied to discrimination against Blacks in the United States, but his definition of racial prejudice as “racial—based negative prejudgments against a group general accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic competition,” can be also including hostility toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in California and the Jews in medieval Europe.
10. Such variations in shape, chemistry, conduction speed, excitation threshold, and the like as had been demonstrated in nerve cells remained negligible in significance for any possible correlation with the manifold dimensions of mental experience.
11. It was possible to demonstrate by other methods refined structural difference among neuron types; however, proof was lacking that the quality of the impulse or its condition was influenced by these differences, which seemed instead to influence the developmental patterning of the neural circuits.
12. Although qualitative variance among nerve energies was never rigidly disproved, the doctrine was generally abandoned in favor of the opposing view, namely, that nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous in quality and are transmitted as “common currency” throughout the nervous system.
13. Other experiment revealed slight variations in the size, number, arrangement, and interconnection of the nerve cells, but as far as psycho-neural correlations was concerned, the obvious similarities of these sensory fields to each other seemed much more remarkable than any of the minute differences.
14. Although some experiments show that, as an object becomes more familiar, its internal representation becomes more holistic and the recognition process correspondingly more parallel, the weight of the evidence seems to support the serial hypothesis, at least for objects that are not notably simple and familiar.
15. In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods.
16. If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact—real Amazonian societies—but rather to offer “moral lessons” on the supposed outcome of women’s rule in their own society.
17. Thus, for instance, it may come as a shock to mathematicians to learn that the Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen atom is not a literally correct description of this atom, but it is an approximation to a somewhat more correct equation (taking account of spin, magnetic dipole, and relativistic effects); and that this corrected equation is itself only an imperfect approximation to an infinite set of quantum field—theoretical equations.
18. The physicist rightly dreads precise argument, since an argument that is convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumption on which it based on are slightly changed, whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying assumptions.
19. However, as they gained cohesion, the Bluestockings came to regard themselves as women’s group and to possess a sense of female solidarity lacking in the salonnieres, who remained isolated from one another by the primacy each held in her own salon.
20. As my own studies have advanced, I have been increasingly impressed with the functional similarities between insect and vertebrate societies and less so with the structural differences that seem, at first glance, to constitute such an immense gulf between them.
21. Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, its authors react to those circumstances other than ideology, and talking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of the fictional enterprise.
22. Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, or trying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic?
23. In addition, the style of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer’s Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the fate against which Black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed by naturalistic modes of expression?
24. Black fiction surveys a wide variety of novels, bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little known works like James Weldon Johnson’s Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man.
25. A low number of algal cells in the presences of a high number of grazers suggested, but did not prove, that the grazers had removed most of the algae.
26. The role those anthropologists ascribe to evolution is not of dictating the details of human behavior but one of imposing constraints—ways of feeling, thinking, and acting that “come naturally” in archetypal situations in any culture.
27. Which of the following most probably provides an appropriate analogy from human morphology for the “detail” versus “constraints” distinction made in the passage in relation to human behavior?
28. Although these molecules allow radiation at visible wavelengths, where most of the energy of sunlight is concentrated, to pass through, but they absorb some of the longer-wavelength, infrared emissions radiated from the Earth’s surface, radiation that would otherwise be transmitted back into space.
29. Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlook the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are mostly likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research.
30. Studies by Hargrave and Green estimated natural community grazing rates by measuring feeding rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory and then computing community grazing rates for field conditions using the known population density of grazers.
31. In the periods of peak zooplankton abundance, that is, in the late spring and in the summer, Haney recorded the maximum daily community grazing rates, for nutrient—poor lakes and bog lakes, respectively, of 6.6 percent and 114 percent of daily phytoplankton production.
32. The hydrologic cycle, a major topic on the science, is the complete cycle of phenomena through which water passes, beginning as atmospheric water vapor, passing into liquid and solid form as precipitation, thence along and into the ground surface, and finally again returning to the form of atmospheric water vapor by means of evaporation and transpiration.
33. Only when a system possesses natural or artificial boundaries that associate the water within it with the hydrologic cycle may the entire system properly be termed hydrogeologic.
34. The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890’s that the agrarian discontent that had been developing steadily in the United States since about 1870s had been precipitated by the closing of the internal frontier—that is, the depletion of available new land needed for further expansion of the American farming system.
35. In the early 1950’s, historian who studied preindustrial Europe (which we may define here as Europe in the period from roughly 1300 to 1800) began, for the first time in large numbers, to investigate more of the preindustrial European population than the 2 or 3 percent who comprised the political and social elite: the kings, generals, judges, nobles, bishops, and local magnates who had hitherto usually filled history books.
36. Historians such as Le Roy Ladurie have used the document to extract case histories, which have illuminate the attitudes of different social groups(these attitudes include, but are not confined to, attitude toward crime and the law) and have revealed how the authorities administered justice.
37. It can be inferred from the passage that a historian who wished to compare crime rate per thousand in a European city in one decade of the fifteenth century with crime rates in another decade of that century would probably be best aided by better information about which of the following?
38. My point is that its central consciousness—its profound understanding of class and gender as shaping influences on people’s lives—owes much to that earlier literary heritage, a heritage that, in general, has not been sufficiently valued by most contemporary literary critics.
39. Even the requirement that biomaterials processed from these materials be noxious to host tissue can be met by techniques derived from studying the reactions of tissue culture to biomaterials or from short—term implant.
40. But achieving necessary matches in physical properties across interface between living and non—living matter requires knowledge of which molecules control the bonding of cells to each other—an area that we have not yet explored thoroughly.
41. Islamic law is a phenomenon so different from all other forms of law—notwithstanding, of course, a considerable and inevitable number of coincidences with one or the other of them as far as subject matter and positive enactment are concerned—that its study is indispensable in order to appreciate adequately the full range of possible legal phenomena.
42. Both Jewish law and canon law are more uniform than Islamic law. Though historically there is a discernible break between Jewish law of the sovereign state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora (the dispersion of Jewish people after the conquest of Israel), the spirit of the legal mater in later parts of the Old Testament is very close to that of the Talmud, one of the primacy codifications of Jewish law in Diaspora.
43. Islam, on the other hand, represented a radical breakaway from the Arab paganism that proceed it; Islamic law is the result of an examination, from a religious angle, of legal subject matter that was far from uniform, comprising as it did the various components of the laws of pre—Islamic Arabia and numerous legal elements taken over from the non—Arab people of the conquered territories.
44. One such novel idea is that of inserting into the chromosomes of plants discrete genes that are not a part of the plants’ natural constitution: specifically, the idea of inserting into nonleguminous plants the genes, if they can be identified and isolated, that fit the leguminous plants to be hosts for nitrogen—fixing bacteria. Hence, the intensified research on legumes.
45. It is one of nature’s great ironies that the availability of nitrogen in the soil frequently sets an upper limit on plant growth even though the plants’ leaves are bathed in a sea of nitrogen gas.
46. Unless they succeed, the yield gains of the Green Revolution will be largely lost even if the genes in legumes that equip those plants to enter into a symbiosis with nitrogen fixers are identified and isolated, and even if the transfer of those gene complexes, once they are found, becomes possible.
47. Its subject (to use Maynard Mack’s categories) is “life—as—spectacle,” for readers, diverted by its various incidents, observes its hero Odysseus primarily from without; the tragic Iliad, however, presents “life—as—experience”: readers are asked to identify with the mind of Achilles, whose motivations render him not a particularly likable hero.
48. Most striking among the many asymmetries evident in an adult flatfish is eye placement: before maturity one eye migrates, so that in an adult flatfish both eyes are on the same side of the head.
49. A critique of the Handlins’ interpretation of why legal slavery did not appear until the 1660s suggests that assumption about the relation between slavery and racial prejudice should be reexamined, and that explanations for the different treatment of Black slaves in North and South America should be expanded.
50. The best evidence for the layered mantel thesis is the well—established fact that volcanic rocks found on oceanic islands, islands believed to result from mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle, are composed of material fundamentally different from that of the midocean ridge system, whose sources, most geologists contend, is the upper mantle.
51. Some geologists, however, on the basis of observations concerning mantle xenoliths, argue that the mantle is not layered, but that heterogeneity is created by fluid rich in “incompatible elements” (elements tending toward liquid rather than solid state) percolating upward and transforming portions of the upper mantle irregularly, according to the vagaries of the fluid’s pathways.
52. Fallois proposed that Proust had tried to begin a novel in 1908, abandoned it for what was to be a long demonstration of Saint—Beuve’s blindness to the real nature of great writing, found the essay giving rise to personal memories and fictional developments, and allowed these to take over in a steadily developing novel.
53. The very richness and complexity of the meaningful relationships that kept presenting and rearranging themselves on all levels, from abstract intelligence to profound dreamy feelings, made it difficult for Proust to set them out coherently.
54. But those of us who hoped, with Kolb, that Kolb’s newly published complete edition of Proust’s correspondence for 1909 would document the process in greater detail are disappointed.
55. Now we also examine the culture as we Mexican Americans have experienced it, passing from a sovereign people to compatriots with newly arriving settlers to, finally, a conquered people—a charter minority on our own land.
56. It is possible to make specific complementary DNA’s (cDNA’s) that can serve as molecular probes to seek out the messenger RNA’s (mRNA’s) of the peptide hormones. If brain cells are making the hormones, the cells will contain these mRNA’s. If the products the brain cells make resemble the hormones but are not identical to them, then the cDNA’s school still blind to these mRNA’s, but should not blind as tightly as they would to mRNA’s for the true hormones.
57. The molecular approach to detecting peptide hormones using cDNA probes should also be much faster than the immunological method because it can take years of tedious purification to isolate peptide hormones and then develop antiserums to them.
58. Nevertheless, researchers of the Pleistocene epoch have developed all sorts of more or less fanciful model schemes of how they would have arranged the Ice Age had they been in charge of events.
59. The succession was based primarily on a series of deposits and events not directly related to glacial and interglacial periods, rather than on the more usual modern methods of studying biological remains in interglacial beds themselves interstratified within glacial deposits.
60. There have been attempts to explain these taboos in terms of inappropriate social relationships either between those who are involved and those who are not simultaneously involved in the satisfaction of a bodily need, or between those already satiated and those who appear to be shamelessly gorging.
61. Many critics of Family Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights see its second part as a counterpoint that comments on, if it dose not reverse, the first part, where a “romantic” reading receives more confirmation.
62. Granted that the presence of these elements need not argue an authorial awareness of novelistic construction comparable to that of Henry James, their presence dose encourage attempts to unify the novel’s heterogeneous parts.
63. This is not because such an interpretations necessarily stiffens into a thesis (although rigidity in any interpretation of this or any novel is always a danger), but because Wuthering Heights has recalcitrant elements of undeniable power that, ultimately, resist inclusion in an all—encompassing interpretation.
64. The isotopic composition of lead often varies from one source of common copper ore to another, with variations exceeding the measurement error; and preliminary studies indicate virtually uniform isotopic composition of the lead from a single copper—ore source.
65. More probable is bird transport, either externally, by accidental attachment of the seeds to feathers, or internally, by the swallowing of fruit and subsequent excretion of the seeds.
66. A long—held view of the history of the English colonies that because the United States has been that England’s policy toward these colonies before 1763 was dictated by commercial interests and that a change to a more imperial policy, dominated by expansionist militarist objectives, generate the tensions that ultimately led to the American Revolution.
67. It is not known how rare this resemblance is, or whether it is most often seen in inclusions of silicates such as garnet, whose crystallography is generally somewhat similar to that of diamond; but when present, the resemblance is regarded as compelling evidence that the diamonds and inclusions are truly cogenetic.
68. Even the “radical” critiques of this mainstream research model, such as the critique developed in Divided Society, attach the issue of ethnic assimilation too mechanically to factors of economics and social mobility and are thus unable to illuminate the cultural subordination of Puerto Ricans as a colonial minority.
69. They are called virtual particles in order to distinguish them from real particles, whose lifetimes are not constrained in the same way, and which can be detected.
70. Open acknowledgement of the existence of women’s oppression was too radical for the United States in the fifties, and Beauvoir’s conclusion, that change in women’s economic condition, though insufficient by itself, “remains the basic factor” in improving women’s situations, was particularly unacceptable.
71. Other theorists propose that the Moon was ripped out of the Earth’s rocky mantle by the earth’s collision with another large celestial body after much of the Earth’s iron fell to its core.
72. However, recent scholarship has suggested that those aspects of early New England culture that seem to have been most distinctly Puritan, such as the strong religious orientation and the communal impulse, were not even typical of New England as a whole, but were largely confined to the two colonies of Massachusetts and Connecticut.
73. Thus, what in contrast to the Puritan colonies appears to Davis to be peculiarly Southern—acquisitiveness, a strong interest in politics and the law, and a tendency to cultivate metropolitan cultural models—was not only more typically English than the cultural patterns exhibited by Puritan Massachusetts and Connecticut, but also almost certainly characteristic of most other early modern British colonies from Barbados north to Rhode Island and New Hampshire.
74. Portrayals of the folk of Mecklenburg Country, North Carolina, whom he remembers from early childhood, of the jazz musicians and tenement roofs of his Harlem days, of Pittsburg steelworkers, and his reconstruction of classical Greek myths in the guise of the ancient Black kingdom of Benin, attest to this.
75. These historians, however, have analyzed less fully the development of specifically feminist ideas and activities during the same period.
76. A very specialized feeding adaptation in zooplankton is that of the tadpoletike appendicularian who lives in a walnut—sized (or smaller) balloon of mucus equipped with filters that capture and concentrated phytoplankton.
77. Apparently most massive stars manage to lose sufficient material that their masses drop below the critical value of 1.4M before they exhaust their nuclear fuel.
78. This is so even though the armed forces operate in an ethos of institutional change oriented toward occupational equality and under the federal sanction of equal pay for equal work.
79. An impact capable of ejecting a fragment of the Martian surface into an earth—intersecting orbit is even less probable than such an event on the Moon, in view of the Moon’s smaller size and closer proximity to earth.
80. Not only are liver transplants never rejected, but they even induce a state of donor—specific unresponsiveness in which subsequent transplants of other organs, such as skin, from that donor are accepted permanently.
81. As rock interfaces are crossed, the elastic characteristics encountered generally abruptly, which causes part of the energy to be reflected back to the surface, where it is recorded by seismic instruments.
82. While the new doctrine seems almost certainly correct, the one papyrus fragment raises the specter that another one may be unearthed, showing, for instance, that it was a posthumous production of the Danaid tetralogy which bested Sophocles, and throwing the date once more into utter confusion.
83. The methods that a community devises to perpetuate itself come into being to preserve aspects of the cultural legacy that that community perceives as essential.
84. Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation of vast quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is actually used.
85. Because the potential hazards pollen grains are subject to as they are transported over long distances are enormous, wind pollinated plants have, in the view above, compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen through happenstance by virtue of producing an amount of pollen that is one to three orders of magnitude greater than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects.
86. For example, the spiritual arrangement of scale-bract complexes on ovule-bearing pine cones, where the female reproductive organs of conifers are located, is important to the production of airflow patterns that spiral over the cone’s surface, thereby passing airborne pollen from one scale to the next.
87. Friedrich Engels, however, predicted that women would be liberated from the “social, legal, and economic subordination” of the family by technological developments that made possible the recruitment of “the whole female sex into public industry”.
88. It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separation of secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, from administrative work that in the 1880s created a new class of “dead-end” jobs, thenceforth considered “women’s work”.
89. The increase in the numbers of married women employed outside the home in the twentieth century had less to do with the mechanization of housework and an increase in leisure time for these women than it did with their own economic necessity and with high marriage rates that shrank the available pool of single women workers, previously, in many cases, the only employers would hire.
90. For one thing, no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors all the time.
91. In order to understand the nature of the ecologist’s investigation, we may think of the density-dependent effects on growth parameters as the “signal” ecologists are trying to isolate and interpret, one that tends to make the population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high ones, while the density-independent effects act to produce “noise” in the population dynamics.
92. But the play’s complex view of Black self-esteem and human solidarity as compatible is no more “contradictory” than Du Bois’s famous, well-considered ideal of ethnic self-awareness coexisting with human unity, or Fanon’s emphasis on an ideal internationalism that also accommodates national identities and roles.
93. In which of the following does the author of the passage reinforce his criticism of responses such as Isaacs’ to .
94. Inheritors of some of the viewpoints of early twentieth-century Progressive historians such as Beard and Becker, these historians have put forward arguments that deserve evaluation.
95. Despite these vague categories, one should not claim unequivocally that hostility between recognizable classes cannot be legitimately observed.
96. Yet those who stress the achievement of a general consensus among the colonists cannot fully understand that consensus without understanding the conflicts that had to be overcome or repressed in order to reach it.
97. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statement regarding socioeconomic class and support for the rebel and Loyalist causes during the American Revolutionary War?
98. She wished to discard the traditional methods and established vocabularies of such dance forms as ballet and to explore the internal sources of human expressiveness.
99. The correlation of carbon dioxide with temperature, of course, does not establish whether changes in atmosphere composition caused the warming and cooling trends or were caused by them.
100. Although it has been possible to infer from the goods and services actually produces what manufactures and servicing trade thought their customers wanted, only a study of relevant personal documents written by actual consumers will provide a precise picture of who wanted what.
101. With regard to this last question, we might note in passing that Thompson, while rightly restoring laboring people to the stage of eighteenth-century English history, has probably exaggerate the opposition of these people to the inroads of capitalist consumerism in general; for example, laboring people in eighteenth-century England readily shifted from home-brewed beer to standardized beer produced by huge, heavily capitalized urban breweries.
102. Such philosophical concerns as the mind-body problem or, more generally, the nature of human knowledge they believe, are basic human question whose tentative philosophical solutions have served as the necessary foundations on which all other intellectual speculation has rested.
103. The idea of an autonomous discipline called “philosophy” distinct from and sitting in judgment on such pursuits as theology and science turns out, on close examination, to be of quite recent origin.
104. They were fighting, albeit discreetly, to open the intellectual world to the new science and to liberate intellectual life from ecclesiastical philosophy and envisioned their work as contributing to the growth, not of philosophy, but of research in mathematics and physics.
105. But the recent discovery of detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all three groups undermines the attempt to explain away superficial resemblance as due to convergent evolution—the independence development of similarities between unrelated groups in response to similar environmental pressures.
106. As a consequence, it may prove difficult or impossible to establish for a successful revolution a comprehensive and trustworthy picture of those who participated, or to answer even the most basic questions one might pose concerning the social origins of the insurgents.
107. For the woman who is a practitioner of feminist literary criticism, the subjective versus objective, or critic-as-artist-or-scientist, debate has special significance; for her, the question is not only academic, but political as well, and her definition will court special risks whichever side of the issue it favors.
108. If she define feminist criticism as objective and scientific-a valid, verifiable, intellectual method that anyone, whether man or woman, can perform-the definition not only preclude the critic-as-artist approach, but may also impede accomplishment of the utilitarian political objectives of those who seek to change the academic establishment and its thinking, especially about sex roles.
109. These questions are political in the sense that the debate over them will inevitably be less an exploration of abstract matters in a spirit of disinterested inquiry than an academic power struggle in which the careers and professional fortunes of many women scholars-only now entering the academic profession in substantial numbers-will be at stake, and with them the changes for a distinctive contribution to humanistic understanding, a contribution that might be an important influence against sexism in our society.
110. Perhaps he believed that he could not criticize American foreign policy without endangering the support for civil rights that he had won from the federal government.
111. However, some broods possess a few snails of the opposing hand, and in predominantly sinistral broods, the incidence of dextrality is surprisingly high.
112. In experiment, an injection of cytoplasm from dextral eggs changes the patterns of sinistral eggs, but an injection from sinistral eggs does not influence dextral eggs.
113. Recently some scientists have concluded that meteorites found on Earth and long believed to have a Martian origin might actually have been blasted free of Mars’s gravity by the impact on Mars of other meteorites.
114. Under the force of this view, it was perhaps inevitable that the art of rhetoric should pass from the status of being regarded as of questionable worth (because although it might be both a source of pleasure and a means to distort truth and a source of misguided action) to the status of being wholly condemned.
115. None of these translations to screen and stages, however, dramatize the anarchy at the conclusion of A Connecticut Yankee, which ends with the violent overthrow of Morgan’s three-year-old progressive order and his return to the nineteenth century, where he apparently commits suicide after being labeled a lunatic for his incoherent babblings about drawbridges and battlements.
116. Calculations of the density of alloys based on Bernal-type models of the alloys metal component agreed fairly well with the experimentally determined values from measurements on alloys consisting of a noble metal together with a metalloid, such as alloys of palladium and silicon, or alloys consisting of iron, phosphorus, and carbon, although small discrepancies remained.
117. And Walzer advocates as the means of eliminating this tyranny and of restoring genuine equality “the abolition of the power of money outside its sphere”.
118. Is it not tyrannical, in Pascal’s sense, to insist that those who excel in “sensitivity” or “the ability to express compassion” merit equal wealth with those who excel in qualities (such as “the quality for hard work”) essential in producing wealth?
119. Yet Walzer’s agreement, however deficient, does point to one of the most serious weakness of capitalism—namely, that is brings to predominant they have earned their material rewards, often lack those others qualities that evoke affection or admiration.
120. The appreciation of tradition oral American Indian Literature has been limited, hampered by poor translations and by the difficulty, even in the rare culturally sensitive and aesthetically satisfying translation, of completely conveying the original’s verse structure, tone, and syntax.
121. Mores, which embodied each culture’s ideal principles for governing every citizen, were developed in the belief that the foundation of a community lies in the cultivation of individual powers to be placed in service to the community.
122. Only in the case of the February Revolution do we lack a useful description of participants that characterize it in the light of what social history has taught us about the process of revolutionary mobilization.
123. Human genes contain too little information even to specify which hemisphere of the brain each of a human’s 10¬¬¬¬¬11¬ neurons should occupy, let alone the hundreds of connections that each neuron makes.
124. Anthropologists and others are no much firmer ground when they attempt to describe the cultural norms for a small homogeneous tribe or village than when they undertake the formidable task of discovering the norms that exist in a complex modern nation-state composed of many disparate groups.
125. The Italian influence is likely, whatever Valdez’ immediate source; the Mexican carpas themselves are said to have originated from the theater pieces of a sixteenth-century Spanish writer inspired by encounters with Italian commedia dell’arte troupes on tour in Spain.
126. It had thus generally been by way of the emphasis on oral literary creativity that these Chicago writers, whose English-language works are sometimes uninspired, developed the powerful and arresting language that characterized their Spanish-language works.
127. This declaration, which was echoed in the text of the Fourteenth Amendment, was designed primarily to counter the Supreme Court’s ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford that Black people in the United States could be denied citizenship.
128. The broad language of the amendment strongly suggests that its frames were proposing to write into the Constitution not a laundry list of specific civil rights but a principle of equal citizenship that forbids that forbids organized society from treating any individual as a member of an inferior class.
129. This doctrine has broadened the application of the Fourteenth Amendment to other, nonracial forms of discrimination, for while some justices have refused to find any legislative classification other than race to be constitutionally disfavored, most have been receptive to arguments that at least some nonracial discriminations, sexual discrimination in particular, are “suspect” and deserve this heightened scrutiny by the courts.
2. Hardy’s weakness derived from his apparent inability to control the comings and goings of these divergent impulses and from his unwillingness to cultivate and sustain the energetic and risky ones.
3. Virginia Woolf’s provocative statement about her intentions in writing Mrs. Dalloway has regularly been ignored by the critics, since it highlights an aspect of her literary interests very different from the traditional picture of the “poetic” novelist concerned with examining states of reverie and vision and with following the intricate pathways of individual consciousness.
4. As she put in The Common Readers, “It is safe to say that not a single law has been framed or one stone set upon another because of anything Chaucer said or wrote; and yet, as we read him, we are absorbing morality at every pore.
5. With the conclusion of a burst of activity, the lactic acid level is high in the body fluids, leaving the large animal vulnerable to attack until the acid is recovered, via oxidative metabolism, by the liver into glucose, which is then sent (in part) back into the muscles for glycogen resynthesis.
6. Although Gutman admits that forced separation by sale was frequent, he shows that the slaves’ preference, revealed most clearly on plantations where sale was infrequent, was very much for stable monogamy.
7. Gutman argues convincingly that the stability of the black family encouraged the transmission of–and so was crucial in sustaining–the Black heritage of folklore, music, and religious expression from one generation to another, a heritage that slaves were continuingly fashioning out of their African and American experience.
8. This preference for exogamy, Gutman suggests, may have derived from West African rules governing marriage, which, though they differed from one tribal group to another, all involved some kind of prohibition against unions with close kin.
9. His thesis works relatively well when applied to discrimination against Blacks in the United States, but his definition of racial prejudice as “racial—based negative prejudgments against a group general accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic competition,” can be also including hostility toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in California and the Jews in medieval Europe.
10. Such variations in shape, chemistry, conduction speed, excitation threshold, and the like as had been demonstrated in nerve cells remained negligible in significance for any possible correlation with the manifold dimensions of mental experience.
11. It was possible to demonstrate by other methods refined structural difference among neuron types; however, proof was lacking that the quality of the impulse or its condition was influenced by these differences, which seemed instead to influence the developmental patterning of the neural circuits.
12. Although qualitative variance among nerve energies was never rigidly disproved, the doctrine was generally abandoned in favor of the opposing view, namely, that nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous in quality and are transmitted as “common currency” throughout the nervous system.
13. Other experiment revealed slight variations in the size, number, arrangement, and interconnection of the nerve cells, but as far as psycho-neural correlations was concerned, the obvious similarities of these sensory fields to each other seemed much more remarkable than any of the minute differences.
14. Although some experiments show that, as an object becomes more familiar, its internal representation becomes more holistic and the recognition process correspondingly more parallel, the weight of the evidence seems to support the serial hypothesis, at least for objects that are not notably simple and familiar.
15. In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods.
16. If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact—real Amazonian societies—but rather to offer “moral lessons” on the supposed outcome of women’s rule in their own society.
17. Thus, for instance, it may come as a shock to mathematicians to learn that the Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen atom is not a literally correct description of this atom, but it is an approximation to a somewhat more correct equation (taking account of spin, magnetic dipole, and relativistic effects); and that this corrected equation is itself only an imperfect approximation to an infinite set of quantum field—theoretical equations.
18. The physicist rightly dreads precise argument, since an argument that is convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumption on which it based on are slightly changed, whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying assumptions.
19. However, as they gained cohesion, the Bluestockings came to regard themselves as women’s group and to possess a sense of female solidarity lacking in the salonnieres, who remained isolated from one another by the primacy each held in her own salon.
20. As my own studies have advanced, I have been increasingly impressed with the functional similarities between insect and vertebrate societies and less so with the structural differences that seem, at first glance, to constitute such an immense gulf between them.
21. Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, its authors react to those circumstances other than ideology, and talking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of the fictional enterprise.
22. Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, or trying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic?
23. In addition, the style of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer’s Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the fate against which Black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed by naturalistic modes of expression?
24. Black fiction surveys a wide variety of novels, bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little known works like James Weldon Johnson’s Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man.
25. A low number of algal cells in the presences of a high number of grazers suggested, but did not prove, that the grazers had removed most of the algae.
26. The role those anthropologists ascribe to evolution is not of dictating the details of human behavior but one of imposing constraints—ways of feeling, thinking, and acting that “come naturally” in archetypal situations in any culture.
27. Which of the following most probably provides an appropriate analogy from human morphology for the “detail” versus “constraints” distinction made in the passage in relation to human behavior?
28. Although these molecules allow radiation at visible wavelengths, where most of the energy of sunlight is concentrated, to pass through, but they absorb some of the longer-wavelength, infrared emissions radiated from the Earth’s surface, radiation that would otherwise be transmitted back into space.
29. Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlook the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are mostly likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research.
30. Studies by Hargrave and Green estimated natural community grazing rates by measuring feeding rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory and then computing community grazing rates for field conditions using the known population density of grazers.
31. In the periods of peak zooplankton abundance, that is, in the late spring and in the summer, Haney recorded the maximum daily community grazing rates, for nutrient—poor lakes and bog lakes, respectively, of 6.6 percent and 114 percent of daily phytoplankton production.
32. The hydrologic cycle, a major topic on the science, is the complete cycle of phenomena through which water passes, beginning as atmospheric water vapor, passing into liquid and solid form as precipitation, thence along and into the ground surface, and finally again returning to the form of atmospheric water vapor by means of evaporation and transpiration.
33. Only when a system possesses natural or artificial boundaries that associate the water within it with the hydrologic cycle may the entire system properly be termed hydrogeologic.
34. The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890’s that the agrarian discontent that had been developing steadily in the United States since about 1870s had been precipitated by the closing of the internal frontier—that is, the depletion of available new land needed for further expansion of the American farming system.
35. In the early 1950’s, historian who studied preindustrial Europe (which we may define here as Europe in the period from roughly 1300 to 1800) began, for the first time in large numbers, to investigate more of the preindustrial European population than the 2 or 3 percent who comprised the political and social elite: the kings, generals, judges, nobles, bishops, and local magnates who had hitherto usually filled history books.
36. Historians such as Le Roy Ladurie have used the document to extract case histories, which have illuminate the attitudes of different social groups(these attitudes include, but are not confined to, attitude toward crime and the law) and have revealed how the authorities administered justice.
37. It can be inferred from the passage that a historian who wished to compare crime rate per thousand in a European city in one decade of the fifteenth century with crime rates in another decade of that century would probably be best aided by better information about which of the following?
38. My point is that its central consciousness—its profound understanding of class and gender as shaping influences on people’s lives—owes much to that earlier literary heritage, a heritage that, in general, has not been sufficiently valued by most contemporary literary critics.
39. Even the requirement that biomaterials processed from these materials be noxious to host tissue can be met by techniques derived from studying the reactions of tissue culture to biomaterials or from short—term implant.
40. But achieving necessary matches in physical properties across interface between living and non—living matter requires knowledge of which molecules control the bonding of cells to each other—an area that we have not yet explored thoroughly.
41. Islamic law is a phenomenon so different from all other forms of law—notwithstanding, of course, a considerable and inevitable number of coincidences with one or the other of them as far as subject matter and positive enactment are concerned—that its study is indispensable in order to appreciate adequately the full range of possible legal phenomena.
42. Both Jewish law and canon law are more uniform than Islamic law. Though historically there is a discernible break between Jewish law of the sovereign state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora (the dispersion of Jewish people after the conquest of Israel), the spirit of the legal mater in later parts of the Old Testament is very close to that of the Talmud, one of the primacy codifications of Jewish law in Diaspora.
43. Islam, on the other hand, represented a radical breakaway from the Arab paganism that proceed it; Islamic law is the result of an examination, from a religious angle, of legal subject matter that was far from uniform, comprising as it did the various components of the laws of pre—Islamic Arabia and numerous legal elements taken over from the non—Arab people of the conquered territories.
44. One such novel idea is that of inserting into the chromosomes of plants discrete genes that are not a part of the plants’ natural constitution: specifically, the idea of inserting into nonleguminous plants the genes, if they can be identified and isolated, that fit the leguminous plants to be hosts for nitrogen—fixing bacteria. Hence, the intensified research on legumes.
45. It is one of nature’s great ironies that the availability of nitrogen in the soil frequently sets an upper limit on plant growth even though the plants’ leaves are bathed in a sea of nitrogen gas.
46. Unless they succeed, the yield gains of the Green Revolution will be largely lost even if the genes in legumes that equip those plants to enter into a symbiosis with nitrogen fixers are identified and isolated, and even if the transfer of those gene complexes, once they are found, becomes possible.
47. Its subject (to use Maynard Mack’s categories) is “life—as—spectacle,” for readers, diverted by its various incidents, observes its hero Odysseus primarily from without; the tragic Iliad, however, presents “life—as—experience”: readers are asked to identify with the mind of Achilles, whose motivations render him not a particularly likable hero.
48. Most striking among the many asymmetries evident in an adult flatfish is eye placement: before maturity one eye migrates, so that in an adult flatfish both eyes are on the same side of the head.
49. A critique of the Handlins’ interpretation of why legal slavery did not appear until the 1660s suggests that assumption about the relation between slavery and racial prejudice should be reexamined, and that explanations for the different treatment of Black slaves in North and South America should be expanded.
50. The best evidence for the layered mantel thesis is the well—established fact that volcanic rocks found on oceanic islands, islands believed to result from mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle, are composed of material fundamentally different from that of the midocean ridge system, whose sources, most geologists contend, is the upper mantle.
51. Some geologists, however, on the basis of observations concerning mantle xenoliths, argue that the mantle is not layered, but that heterogeneity is created by fluid rich in “incompatible elements” (elements tending toward liquid rather than solid state) percolating upward and transforming portions of the upper mantle irregularly, according to the vagaries of the fluid’s pathways.
52. Fallois proposed that Proust had tried to begin a novel in 1908, abandoned it for what was to be a long demonstration of Saint—Beuve’s blindness to the real nature of great writing, found the essay giving rise to personal memories and fictional developments, and allowed these to take over in a steadily developing novel.
53. The very richness and complexity of the meaningful relationships that kept presenting and rearranging themselves on all levels, from abstract intelligence to profound dreamy feelings, made it difficult for Proust to set them out coherently.
54. But those of us who hoped, with Kolb, that Kolb’s newly published complete edition of Proust’s correspondence for 1909 would document the process in greater detail are disappointed.
55. Now we also examine the culture as we Mexican Americans have experienced it, passing from a sovereign people to compatriots with newly arriving settlers to, finally, a conquered people—a charter minority on our own land.
56. It is possible to make specific complementary DNA’s (cDNA’s) that can serve as molecular probes to seek out the messenger RNA’s (mRNA’s) of the peptide hormones. If brain cells are making the hormones, the cells will contain these mRNA’s. If the products the brain cells make resemble the hormones but are not identical to them, then the cDNA’s school still blind to these mRNA’s, but should not blind as tightly as they would to mRNA’s for the true hormones.
57. The molecular approach to detecting peptide hormones using cDNA probes should also be much faster than the immunological method because it can take years of tedious purification to isolate peptide hormones and then develop antiserums to them.
58. Nevertheless, researchers of the Pleistocene epoch have developed all sorts of more or less fanciful model schemes of how they would have arranged the Ice Age had they been in charge of events.
59. The succession was based primarily on a series of deposits and events not directly related to glacial and interglacial periods, rather than on the more usual modern methods of studying biological remains in interglacial beds themselves interstratified within glacial deposits.
60. There have been attempts to explain these taboos in terms of inappropriate social relationships either between those who are involved and those who are not simultaneously involved in the satisfaction of a bodily need, or between those already satiated and those who appear to be shamelessly gorging.
61. Many critics of Family Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights see its second part as a counterpoint that comments on, if it dose not reverse, the first part, where a “romantic” reading receives more confirmation.
62. Granted that the presence of these elements need not argue an authorial awareness of novelistic construction comparable to that of Henry James, their presence dose encourage attempts to unify the novel’s heterogeneous parts.
63. This is not because such an interpretations necessarily stiffens into a thesis (although rigidity in any interpretation of this or any novel is always a danger), but because Wuthering Heights has recalcitrant elements of undeniable power that, ultimately, resist inclusion in an all—encompassing interpretation.
64. The isotopic composition of lead often varies from one source of common copper ore to another, with variations exceeding the measurement error; and preliminary studies indicate virtually uniform isotopic composition of the lead from a single copper—ore source.
65. More probable is bird transport, either externally, by accidental attachment of the seeds to feathers, or internally, by the swallowing of fruit and subsequent excretion of the seeds.
66. A long—held view of the history of the English colonies that because the United States has been that England’s policy toward these colonies before 1763 was dictated by commercial interests and that a change to a more imperial policy, dominated by expansionist militarist objectives, generate the tensions that ultimately led to the American Revolution.
67. It is not known how rare this resemblance is, or whether it is most often seen in inclusions of silicates such as garnet, whose crystallography is generally somewhat similar to that of diamond; but when present, the resemblance is regarded as compelling evidence that the diamonds and inclusions are truly cogenetic.
68. Even the “radical” critiques of this mainstream research model, such as the critique developed in Divided Society, attach the issue of ethnic assimilation too mechanically to factors of economics and social mobility and are thus unable to illuminate the cultural subordination of Puerto Ricans as a colonial minority.
69. They are called virtual particles in order to distinguish them from real particles, whose lifetimes are not constrained in the same way, and which can be detected.
70. Open acknowledgement of the existence of women’s oppression was too radical for the United States in the fifties, and Beauvoir’s conclusion, that change in women’s economic condition, though insufficient by itself, “remains the basic factor” in improving women’s situations, was particularly unacceptable.
71. Other theorists propose that the Moon was ripped out of the Earth’s rocky mantle by the earth’s collision with another large celestial body after much of the Earth’s iron fell to its core.
72. However, recent scholarship has suggested that those aspects of early New England culture that seem to have been most distinctly Puritan, such as the strong religious orientation and the communal impulse, were not even typical of New England as a whole, but were largely confined to the two colonies of Massachusetts and Connecticut.
73. Thus, what in contrast to the Puritan colonies appears to Davis to be peculiarly Southern—acquisitiveness, a strong interest in politics and the law, and a tendency to cultivate metropolitan cultural models—was not only more typically English than the cultural patterns exhibited by Puritan Massachusetts and Connecticut, but also almost certainly characteristic of most other early modern British colonies from Barbados north to Rhode Island and New Hampshire.
74. Portrayals of the folk of Mecklenburg Country, North Carolina, whom he remembers from early childhood, of the jazz musicians and tenement roofs of his Harlem days, of Pittsburg steelworkers, and his reconstruction of classical Greek myths in the guise of the ancient Black kingdom of Benin, attest to this.
75. These historians, however, have analyzed less fully the development of specifically feminist ideas and activities during the same period.
76. A very specialized feeding adaptation in zooplankton is that of the tadpoletike appendicularian who lives in a walnut—sized (or smaller) balloon of mucus equipped with filters that capture and concentrated phytoplankton.
77. Apparently most massive stars manage to lose sufficient material that their masses drop below the critical value of 1.4M before they exhaust their nuclear fuel.
78. This is so even though the armed forces operate in an ethos of institutional change oriented toward occupational equality and under the federal sanction of equal pay for equal work.
79. An impact capable of ejecting a fragment of the Martian surface into an earth—intersecting orbit is even less probable than such an event on the Moon, in view of the Moon’s smaller size and closer proximity to earth.
80. Not only are liver transplants never rejected, but they even induce a state of donor—specific unresponsiveness in which subsequent transplants of other organs, such as skin, from that donor are accepted permanently.
81. As rock interfaces are crossed, the elastic characteristics encountered generally abruptly, which causes part of the energy to be reflected back to the surface, where it is recorded by seismic instruments.
82. While the new doctrine seems almost certainly correct, the one papyrus fragment raises the specter that another one may be unearthed, showing, for instance, that it was a posthumous production of the Danaid tetralogy which bested Sophocles, and throwing the date once more into utter confusion.
83. The methods that a community devises to perpetuate itself come into being to preserve aspects of the cultural legacy that that community perceives as essential.
84. Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation of vast quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is actually used.
85. Because the potential hazards pollen grains are subject to as they are transported over long distances are enormous, wind pollinated plants have, in the view above, compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen through happenstance by virtue of producing an amount of pollen that is one to three orders of magnitude greater than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects.
86. For example, the spiritual arrangement of scale-bract complexes on ovule-bearing pine cones, where the female reproductive organs of conifers are located, is important to the production of airflow patterns that spiral over the cone’s surface, thereby passing airborne pollen from one scale to the next.
87. Friedrich Engels, however, predicted that women would be liberated from the “social, legal, and economic subordination” of the family by technological developments that made possible the recruitment of “the whole female sex into public industry”.
88. It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separation of secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, from administrative work that in the 1880s created a new class of “dead-end” jobs, thenceforth considered “women’s work”.
89. The increase in the numbers of married women employed outside the home in the twentieth century had less to do with the mechanization of housework and an increase in leisure time for these women than it did with their own economic necessity and with high marriage rates that shrank the available pool of single women workers, previously, in many cases, the only employers would hire.
90. For one thing, no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors all the time.
91. In order to understand the nature of the ecologist’s investigation, we may think of the density-dependent effects on growth parameters as the “signal” ecologists are trying to isolate and interpret, one that tends to make the population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high ones, while the density-independent effects act to produce “noise” in the population dynamics.
92. But the play’s complex view of Black self-esteem and human solidarity as compatible is no more “contradictory” than Du Bois’s famous, well-considered ideal of ethnic self-awareness coexisting with human unity, or Fanon’s emphasis on an ideal internationalism that also accommodates national identities and roles.
93. In which of the following does the author of the passage reinforce his criticism of responses such as Isaacs’ to .
94. Inheritors of some of the viewpoints of early twentieth-century Progressive historians such as Beard and Becker, these historians have put forward arguments that deserve evaluation.
95. Despite these vague categories, one should not claim unequivocally that hostility between recognizable classes cannot be legitimately observed.
96. Yet those who stress the achievement of a general consensus among the colonists cannot fully understand that consensus without understanding the conflicts that had to be overcome or repressed in order to reach it.
97. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statement regarding socioeconomic class and support for the rebel and Loyalist causes during the American Revolutionary War?
98. She wished to discard the traditional methods and established vocabularies of such dance forms as ballet and to explore the internal sources of human expressiveness.
99. The correlation of carbon dioxide with temperature, of course, does not establish whether changes in atmosphere composition caused the warming and cooling trends or were caused by them.
100. Although it has been possible to infer from the goods and services actually produces what manufactures and servicing trade thought their customers wanted, only a study of relevant personal documents written by actual consumers will provide a precise picture of who wanted what.
101. With regard to this last question, we might note in passing that Thompson, while rightly restoring laboring people to the stage of eighteenth-century English history, has probably exaggerate the opposition of these people to the inroads of capitalist consumerism in general; for example, laboring people in eighteenth-century England readily shifted from home-brewed beer to standardized beer produced by huge, heavily capitalized urban breweries.
102. Such philosophical concerns as the mind-body problem or, more generally, the nature of human knowledge they believe, are basic human question whose tentative philosophical solutions have served as the necessary foundations on which all other intellectual speculation has rested.
103. The idea of an autonomous discipline called “philosophy” distinct from and sitting in judgment on such pursuits as theology and science turns out, on close examination, to be of quite recent origin.
104. They were fighting, albeit discreetly, to open the intellectual world to the new science and to liberate intellectual life from ecclesiastical philosophy and envisioned their work as contributing to the growth, not of philosophy, but of research in mathematics and physics.
105. But the recent discovery of detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all three groups undermines the attempt to explain away superficial resemblance as due to convergent evolution—the independence development of similarities between unrelated groups in response to similar environmental pressures.
106. As a consequence, it may prove difficult or impossible to establish for a successful revolution a comprehensive and trustworthy picture of those who participated, or to answer even the most basic questions one might pose concerning the social origins of the insurgents.
107. For the woman who is a practitioner of feminist literary criticism, the subjective versus objective, or critic-as-artist-or-scientist, debate has special significance; for her, the question is not only academic, but political as well, and her definition will court special risks whichever side of the issue it favors.
108. If she define feminist criticism as objective and scientific-a valid, verifiable, intellectual method that anyone, whether man or woman, can perform-the definition not only preclude the critic-as-artist approach, but may also impede accomplishment of the utilitarian political objectives of those who seek to change the academic establishment and its thinking, especially about sex roles.
109. These questions are political in the sense that the debate over them will inevitably be less an exploration of abstract matters in a spirit of disinterested inquiry than an academic power struggle in which the careers and professional fortunes of many women scholars-only now entering the academic profession in substantial numbers-will be at stake, and with them the changes for a distinctive contribution to humanistic understanding, a contribution that might be an important influence against sexism in our society.
110. Perhaps he believed that he could not criticize American foreign policy without endangering the support for civil rights that he had won from the federal government.
111. However, some broods possess a few snails of the opposing hand, and in predominantly sinistral broods, the incidence of dextrality is surprisingly high.
112. In experiment, an injection of cytoplasm from dextral eggs changes the patterns of sinistral eggs, but an injection from sinistral eggs does not influence dextral eggs.
113. Recently some scientists have concluded that meteorites found on Earth and long believed to have a Martian origin might actually have been blasted free of Mars’s gravity by the impact on Mars of other meteorites.
114. Under the force of this view, it was perhaps inevitable that the art of rhetoric should pass from the status of being regarded as of questionable worth (because although it might be both a source of pleasure and a means to distort truth and a source of misguided action) to the status of being wholly condemned.
115. None of these translations to screen and stages, however, dramatize the anarchy at the conclusion of A Connecticut Yankee, which ends with the violent overthrow of Morgan’s three-year-old progressive order and his return to the nineteenth century, where he apparently commits suicide after being labeled a lunatic for his incoherent babblings about drawbridges and battlements.
116. Calculations of the density of alloys based on Bernal-type models of the alloys metal component agreed fairly well with the experimentally determined values from measurements on alloys consisting of a noble metal together with a metalloid, such as alloys of palladium and silicon, or alloys consisting of iron, phosphorus, and carbon, although small discrepancies remained.
117. And Walzer advocates as the means of eliminating this tyranny and of restoring genuine equality “the abolition of the power of money outside its sphere”.
118. Is it not tyrannical, in Pascal’s sense, to insist that those who excel in “sensitivity” or “the ability to express compassion” merit equal wealth with those who excel in qualities (such as “the quality for hard work”) essential in producing wealth?
119. Yet Walzer’s agreement, however deficient, does point to one of the most serious weakness of capitalism—namely, that is brings to predominant they have earned their material rewards, often lack those others qualities that evoke affection or admiration.
120. The appreciation of tradition oral American Indian Literature has been limited, hampered by poor translations and by the difficulty, even in the rare culturally sensitive and aesthetically satisfying translation, of completely conveying the original’s verse structure, tone, and syntax.
121. Mores, which embodied each culture’s ideal principles for governing every citizen, were developed in the belief that the foundation of a community lies in the cultivation of individual powers to be placed in service to the community.
122. Only in the case of the February Revolution do we lack a useful description of participants that characterize it in the light of what social history has taught us about the process of revolutionary mobilization.
123. Human genes contain too little information even to specify which hemisphere of the brain each of a human’s 10¬¬¬¬¬11¬ neurons should occupy, let alone the hundreds of connections that each neuron makes.
124. Anthropologists and others are no much firmer ground when they attempt to describe the cultural norms for a small homogeneous tribe or village than when they undertake the formidable task of discovering the norms that exist in a complex modern nation-state composed of many disparate groups.
125. The Italian influence is likely, whatever Valdez’ immediate source; the Mexican carpas themselves are said to have originated from the theater pieces of a sixteenth-century Spanish writer inspired by encounters with Italian commedia dell’arte troupes on tour in Spain.
126. It had thus generally been by way of the emphasis on oral literary creativity that these Chicago writers, whose English-language works are sometimes uninspired, developed the powerful and arresting language that characterized their Spanish-language works.
127. This declaration, which was echoed in the text of the Fourteenth Amendment, was designed primarily to counter the Supreme Court’s ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford that Black people in the United States could be denied citizenship.
128. The broad language of the amendment strongly suggests that its frames were proposing to write into the Constitution not a laundry list of specific civil rights but a principle of equal citizenship that forbids that forbids organized society from treating any individual as a member of an inferior class.
129. This doctrine has broadened the application of the Fourteenth Amendment to other, nonracial forms of discrimination, for while some justices have refused to find any legislative classification other than race to be constitutionally disfavored, most have been receptive to arguments that at least some nonracial discriminations, sexual discrimination in particular, are “suspect” and deserve this heightened scrutiny by the courts.
Thursday, June 17, 2010
Logic Error
Loose generalizations
Drawing conclusions about groups of people on the basis of stereotypes.
Example: French people are more romantic.
Hasty generalizations
Arriving at a conclusion without enough evidence.
Example: Asian-American students are better in math.
Circular Reasoning
Restating in different words what has already been stated.
Example: Dieting is hard because it requires consuming fewer calories.
Single cause-effect
Claiming that only one event caused another when there may be no real connection.
Example: When I sat down at the computer it stopped working, so I must have done something
wrong.
Slippery Slope
Assumes a chain of cause-effect relationships with very suspect connections.
Example: Because I failed my exam, my parents were mad, I lost my wallet, my car wouldn't start,
and I got fired.
Non Sequitur
The first part of the idea does not relate to the other.
Example: I did well in school because I always wore nice clothes.
Either/Or
Suggesting only two alternatives when the issue may be much more complex.
Example: America--love it or leave it!
False Authority
Draws attention away from the evidence and leans on the popularity of someone who may have
little knowledge of the issue or product.
Example: Kathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they
must be.
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person instead of the ideas.
Example: Don't vote for Jerry Brown; he's a left-wing fanatic, a throwback to the 60s who
meditates and eats health foods.
Bandwagon Thinking
Claiming that most people agree so it must be right.
Example: I wouldn't have cheated on my income taxes, but everyone else does, so why shouldn't I?
Stacking the deck
Giving a slanted view of the issue by focusing only on one side.
Example: I deserve to get an A in the class because I like the teacher, work hard, and attend class.
Appeal to Emotion
Exploiting the audience's feeling in order to get them on your side.
Example: I believe I deserve a scholarship because I am an orphan who grew up in a dysfunctional
foster family.
Ignoring the question
Changing the topic before it is really considered
Example: The criminal won't say where he was on the night of the crime, but he does remember
being teased relentlessly as a child.
Trivial objections
Can be similar to ad hominem in that it focuses on things unimportant to the issue at hand.
Example: I think Ross Perot would make a terrible president. His ears are huge.
Drawing conclusions about groups of people on the basis of stereotypes.
Example: French people are more romantic.
Hasty generalizations
Arriving at a conclusion without enough evidence.
Example: Asian-American students are better in math.
Circular Reasoning
Restating in different words what has already been stated.
Example: Dieting is hard because it requires consuming fewer calories.
Single cause-effect
Claiming that only one event caused another when there may be no real connection.
Example: When I sat down at the computer it stopped working, so I must have done something
wrong.
Slippery Slope
Assumes a chain of cause-effect relationships with very suspect connections.
Example: Because I failed my exam, my parents were mad, I lost my wallet, my car wouldn't start,
and I got fired.
Non Sequitur
The first part of the idea does not relate to the other.
Example: I did well in school because I always wore nice clothes.
Either/Or
Suggesting only two alternatives when the issue may be much more complex.
Example: America--love it or leave it!
False Authority
Draws attention away from the evidence and leans on the popularity of someone who may have
little knowledge of the issue or product.
Example: Kathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they
must be.
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person instead of the ideas.
Example: Don't vote for Jerry Brown; he's a left-wing fanatic, a throwback to the 60s who
meditates and eats health foods.
Bandwagon Thinking
Claiming that most people agree so it must be right.
Example: I wouldn't have cheated on my income taxes, but everyone else does, so why shouldn't I?
Stacking the deck
Giving a slanted view of the issue by focusing only on one side.
Example: I deserve to get an A in the class because I like the teacher, work hard, and attend class.
Appeal to Emotion
Exploiting the audience's feeling in order to get them on your side.
Example: I believe I deserve a scholarship because I am an orphan who grew up in a dysfunctional
foster family.
Ignoring the question
Changing the topic before it is really considered
Example: The criminal won't say where he was on the night of the crime, but he does remember
being teased relentlessly as a child.
Trivial objections
Can be similar to ad hominem in that it focuses on things unimportant to the issue at hand.
Example: I think Ross Perot would make a terrible president. His ears are huge.
The following appeared in a recommendation from the president of Amburg's Chamber of Commerce
"Last October the city of Belleville installed high intensity lighting in its central business district,
and vandalism there declined almost immediately. The city of Amburg has recently begun
police patrols on bicycles in its business district but the rate of vandalism there remains
constant. Since high intensity lighting is apparently the most effective way to combat crime, we
should install such lighting throughout Amburg. By reducing crime in this way, we can revitalize
the declining neighborhoods in our city."
Amburg's Chamber-of-Commerce president has recommended high-intensity lighting
throughout Amburg as the best means of reducing crime and revitnliT, ing city neighbor hoods.
In support of this recommendation the president points out that when Belleville took similar
action vandalism declined there almost immediately. The president also points out that since
Amburg's police began patrolling on bicycles the incidence of vandalism has remained
unchanged. The president's argument is flawed in several critical respects.
First, the argument rests on the unsupported assumption that in BeUeviUe the immediate
decline in vandalism was attributable to the lighting--rather than to some other
phenomenon-and that the lighting has continued to serve as an effective deterrent there.
Perhaps around the same time the city added police units or more after-school youth programs.
Moreover, perhaps since the initial decline vandals have grown accustomed to the lighting and
are no longer deterred by it. Without ruling out other feasible explanations for the decline and
showing that the decline was a lasting one, the president cannot reasonably conclude on the
basis of BelleviUe's experience that the same course of action would serve Amburg's
objectives.
Secondly, the president assumes too hastily that Amburg's bicycle patrol has been
ineffective in deterring vandalism. Perhaps other factors--such as a demographic shift or
worsening economic conditions--have served to increase vandalism while the bicycle patrol
has offset that increase. Thus without showing that all other conditions affecting the incidence
of vandalism have remained unchanged since the police began its bicycle patrol the president
cannot convincingly condude that high-intensity lighting would be a more effective means of preventing vandalism.
Thirdly, the president falsely assumes that high-intensity lighting and bicycle patrolling are Amburg's only possible means of reducing crime. In all likelihood Amburg has a myriad of other choices--such as social programs and juvenile legal-system reforms, to name just a few. Moreover, undoubtedly vandalism is not the only type of crime in Amburg. Thus unless the president can show that high-intensity lighting will deter other types of crime as well I cannot take seriously the president's conclusion that installing high intensity lighting would be the best way for Amburg to reduce its overall crime rate.
Finally, even if high-intensity lighting would be Amburg's best means of reducing crime in its
central business district, the president's further assertion that reducing crime would result in a
revitalization of city neighborhoods is unwarranted. Perhaps the decline of Amburg's city
neighborhoods is attributable not to the crime rate in Amburg's central business district but
rather to other factors--such as the availability of more attractive housing in the suburbs. And if
the neighborhoods in decline are not located within the central business district the president's
argument is even weaker.
In sum, the recommendation is not well-supported. To bolster it the president must show that
BeUeville's decline in vandalism is lasting and is attributable to the lighting. The president must
also show that lighting would be more effective than any other means at Amburg's disposal to
reduce not just vandalism but other crimes as well. To better assess the recommendation I
would need to know whether Amburg's declining city neighbor-hoods are located within the
central business district, and whether any other factors might have contributed to the decline.
and vandalism there declined almost immediately. The city of Amburg has recently begun
police patrols on bicycles in its business district but the rate of vandalism there remains
constant. Since high intensity lighting is apparently the most effective way to combat crime, we
should install such lighting throughout Amburg. By reducing crime in this way, we can revitalize
the declining neighborhoods in our city."
Amburg's Chamber-of-Commerce president has recommended high-intensity lighting
throughout Amburg as the best means of reducing crime and revitnliT, ing city neighbor hoods.
In support of this recommendation the president points out that when Belleville took similar
action vandalism declined there almost immediately. The president also points out that since
Amburg's police began patrolling on bicycles the incidence of vandalism has remained
unchanged. The president's argument is flawed in several critical respects.
First, the argument rests on the unsupported assumption that in BeUeviUe the immediate
decline in vandalism was attributable to the lighting--rather than to some other
phenomenon-and that the lighting has continued to serve as an effective deterrent there.
Perhaps around the same time the city added police units or more after-school youth programs.
Moreover, perhaps since the initial decline vandals have grown accustomed to the lighting and
are no longer deterred by it. Without ruling out other feasible explanations for the decline and
showing that the decline was a lasting one, the president cannot reasonably conclude on the
basis of BelleviUe's experience that the same course of action would serve Amburg's
objectives.
Secondly, the president assumes too hastily that Amburg's bicycle patrol has been
ineffective in deterring vandalism. Perhaps other factors--such as a demographic shift or
worsening economic conditions--have served to increase vandalism while the bicycle patrol
has offset that increase. Thus without showing that all other conditions affecting the incidence
of vandalism have remained unchanged since the police began its bicycle patrol the president
cannot convincingly condude that high-intensity lighting would be a more effective means of preventing vandalism.
Thirdly, the president falsely assumes that high-intensity lighting and bicycle patrolling are Amburg's only possible means of reducing crime. In all likelihood Amburg has a myriad of other choices--such as social programs and juvenile legal-system reforms, to name just a few. Moreover, undoubtedly vandalism is not the only type of crime in Amburg. Thus unless the president can show that high-intensity lighting will deter other types of crime as well I cannot take seriously the president's conclusion that installing high intensity lighting would be the best way for Amburg to reduce its overall crime rate.
Finally, even if high-intensity lighting would be Amburg's best means of reducing crime in its
central business district, the president's further assertion that reducing crime would result in a
revitalization of city neighborhoods is unwarranted. Perhaps the decline of Amburg's city
neighborhoods is attributable not to the crime rate in Amburg's central business district but
rather to other factors--such as the availability of more attractive housing in the suburbs. And if
the neighborhoods in decline are not located within the central business district the president's
argument is even weaker.
In sum, the recommendation is not well-supported. To bolster it the president must show that
BeUeville's decline in vandalism is lasting and is attributable to the lighting. The president must
also show that lighting would be more effective than any other means at Amburg's disposal to
reduce not just vandalism but other crimes as well. To better assess the recommendation I
would need to know whether Amburg's declining city neighbor-hoods are located within the
central business district, and whether any other factors might have contributed to the decline.
Rockingham's century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building
The following is taken from the editorial section of the local newspaper in Rockingham.
"In order to save a considerable amount of money, Rockingham's century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building that some citizens have proposed. The old town hall is too small to comfortably accommodate the number of people who are employed by the town. In addition, it is very costly to heat the old hall in winter and cool it in summer. The new, larger building would be more energy efficient, costing less per square foot to heat and cool than the old hall. Furthermore, it would be possible to rent out some of the space in the new building, thereby generating income for the town of Rockingham."
This editorial condudes that the town of Rockingham would save money by replacing its old
town hall with a larger, more energy-efficient one. To support the argument the editorial's
author cites the need for a larger building to comfortably accommodate employees, and the
fact that the proposed building would cost less per cubic foot to heat and cool than the current
building would. However, the editorial is unconvincing for several reasons.
First of all, even though it would cost less per cubic foot to heat and cool the new building,
because the new building would be larger the total cooling and heating costs might actually be
greater than they are now. Add to this possibility the initial cost of replacing the structure, and
in all likelihood the new building would not save money for the town. Besides, the argument
ignores other, potentially less expensive, means of reducing current heating and cooling costs--for example, retrofitting the building with a new climate control system.
Secondly, the editorial relies partly on the fact that the current building cannot comfortably
accommodate all the people who work in it. However, this fact in itself is irrelevant to whether
the town would save money by replacing the building. Besides, the editorial ignores other,
potentially less expensive, solutions to the current comfort problem--for example, adding an
annex to the current structure.
Thirdly, the editorial relies partly on the assertion that the town could generate income by
renting out part of a larger new building. However, the author equivocates here--on the one
hand claiming that a larger building is needed because the old one is too small to
accommodate employees, while on the other hand proposing that the additional space not be
used to solve this problem. The use of conflicting evidence to support the same conclusion
renders the argument wholly unpersuasive.
In conclusion, the editorial is unconvincing as it stands. To strengthen the assertion that a
new building would save the town money, the editorial's author must provide a detailed
analysis comparing the cost of cooling and heating the current hall to the anticipated cost of
cooling and heating the new hall. In this analysis, the author must factor in the initial cost of
replacing the old hall, as well as the additional rental income that the larger hall might generate.
Finally, the author must choose between two competing objectives: creating a more spacious
environment for current employees or creating a larger hall for the purpose of generating rental
income.
"In order to save a considerable amount of money, Rockingham's century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building that some citizens have proposed. The old town hall is too small to comfortably accommodate the number of people who are employed by the town. In addition, it is very costly to heat the old hall in winter and cool it in summer. The new, larger building would be more energy efficient, costing less per square foot to heat and cool than the old hall. Furthermore, it would be possible to rent out some of the space in the new building, thereby generating income for the town of Rockingham."
This editorial condudes that the town of Rockingham would save money by replacing its old
town hall with a larger, more energy-efficient one. To support the argument the editorial's
author cites the need for a larger building to comfortably accommodate employees, and the
fact that the proposed building would cost less per cubic foot to heat and cool than the current
building would. However, the editorial is unconvincing for several reasons.
First of all, even though it would cost less per cubic foot to heat and cool the new building,
because the new building would be larger the total cooling and heating costs might actually be
greater than they are now. Add to this possibility the initial cost of replacing the structure, and
in all likelihood the new building would not save money for the town. Besides, the argument
ignores other, potentially less expensive, means of reducing current heating and cooling costs--for example, retrofitting the building with a new climate control system.
Secondly, the editorial relies partly on the fact that the current building cannot comfortably
accommodate all the people who work in it. However, this fact in itself is irrelevant to whether
the town would save money by replacing the building. Besides, the editorial ignores other,
potentially less expensive, solutions to the current comfort problem--for example, adding an
annex to the current structure.
Thirdly, the editorial relies partly on the assertion that the town could generate income by
renting out part of a larger new building. However, the author equivocates here--on the one
hand claiming that a larger building is needed because the old one is too small to
accommodate employees, while on the other hand proposing that the additional space not be
used to solve this problem. The use of conflicting evidence to support the same conclusion
renders the argument wholly unpersuasive.
In conclusion, the editorial is unconvincing as it stands. To strengthen the assertion that a
new building would save the town money, the editorial's author must provide a detailed
analysis comparing the cost of cooling and heating the current hall to the anticipated cost of
cooling and heating the new hall. In this analysis, the author must factor in the initial cost of
replacing the old hall, as well as the additional rental income that the larger hall might generate.
Finally, the author must choose between two competing objectives: creating a more spacious
environment for current employees or creating a larger hall for the purpose of generating rental
income.
Wednesday, June 16, 2010
One of the greatest challenges facing medical students today
One of the greatest challenges facing medical students today, apart from absorbing volumes of technical information and learning habits of scientific thought, is that of remaining empathetic to the needs of patients in the face of all this rigorous training. Requiring students to immerse themselves completely in medical coursework risks disconnecting them from the personal and ethical aspects of doctoring, and such strictly scientific thinking is insufficient for grappling with modern ethical dilemmas. For these reasons, aspiring physicians need to develop new ways of thinking about and interacting with patients. Training in ethics that takes narrative literature as its primary subject is one method of accomplishing this.
Although training in ethics is currently provided by medical schools, this training relies heavily on an abstract, philosophical view of ethics. Although the conceptual clarity provided by a traditional ethics course can be valuable, theorizing about ethics contributes little to the understanding of everyday human experience or to preparing medical students for the multifarious ethical dilemmas they will face as physicians. A true foundation in ethics must be predicated on an understanding of human behavior that reflects a wide array of relationships and readily adapts to various perspectives, for this is what is required to develop empathy. Ethics courses drawing on narrative literature can better help students prepare for ethical dilemmas precisely because such literature attaches its readers so forcefully to the concrete and varied would of human events.
The act of reading narrative literature is uniquely suited to the development of what might be called flexible ethical thinking. To grasp the development of character, to tangle with heightening moral crises, and to engage oneself with the story not as one’s own but nevertheless as something recognizable and worthy of attention, readers must use their moral imagination. Giving oneself over to the ethical conflicts in a story requires the abandonment of strictly absolute, inviolate sets of moral principles. Reading literature also demands that the reader adopt another person’s point of view –that of the narrator or a character in a story—and thus requires the ability to depart from one’s personal ethical stance and examine moral issues from new perspectives.
It does not follow that readers, including medical professionals, must relinquish all moral principles, as is the case with situational ethics, in which decisions about ethical choices are made on the basis of intuition ad are entirely relative to the circumstances in which they arise. Such an extremely relativistic stance would have as little benefit for the patient or physician as would a dogmatically absolutist one. Fortunately, the incorporation of narrative literature into the study of ethics, while serving as a corrective to the later stance, need not lead to the former. But it can give us something that is lacking in the traditional philosophical study of ethics—namely, a deeper understanding of human nature that can serve as a foundation for ethical reasoning and allow greater flexibility in the application of moral principles.
Although training in ethics is currently provided by medical schools, this training relies heavily on an abstract, philosophical view of ethics. Although the conceptual clarity provided by a traditional ethics course can be valuable, theorizing about ethics contributes little to the understanding of everyday human experience or to preparing medical students for the multifarious ethical dilemmas they will face as physicians. A true foundation in ethics must be predicated on an understanding of human behavior that reflects a wide array of relationships and readily adapts to various perspectives, for this is what is required to develop empathy. Ethics courses drawing on narrative literature can better help students prepare for ethical dilemmas precisely because such literature attaches its readers so forcefully to the concrete and varied would of human events.
The act of reading narrative literature is uniquely suited to the development of what might be called flexible ethical thinking. To grasp the development of character, to tangle with heightening moral crises, and to engage oneself with the story not as one’s own but nevertheless as something recognizable and worthy of attention, readers must use their moral imagination. Giving oneself over to the ethical conflicts in a story requires the abandonment of strictly absolute, inviolate sets of moral principles. Reading literature also demands that the reader adopt another person’s point of view –that of the narrator or a character in a story—and thus requires the ability to depart from one’s personal ethical stance and examine moral issues from new perspectives.
It does not follow that readers, including medical professionals, must relinquish all moral principles, as is the case with situational ethics, in which decisions about ethical choices are made on the basis of intuition ad are entirely relative to the circumstances in which they arise. Such an extremely relativistic stance would have as little benefit for the patient or physician as would a dogmatically absolutist one. Fortunately, the incorporation of narrative literature into the study of ethics, while serving as a corrective to the later stance, need not lead to the former. But it can give us something that is lacking in the traditional philosophical study of ethics—namely, a deeper understanding of human nature that can serve as a foundation for ethical reasoning and allow greater flexibility in the application of moral principles.
The foundations of historical sociology
In explaining the foundations of the discipline known as historical sociology—the examination of history using the methods of sociology—historical sociologist Philip Abrams argues that, while people are made by society as much as society is made by people, sociologists’ approach to the subject is usually to focus on only one of these forms of influence to the exclusion of the other. Abrams insists on the necessity for sociologists to move beyond these one-sided approaches to understand society as an entity constructed by individuals who are at the same time constructed by their society. Abrams refers to this continuous process as “structuring”.
Abrams also sees history as the result of structuring. People, both individually and as members of collectives, make history. But our making of history is itself formed and informed not only by the historical conditions we inherit from the past, but also by the prior formation of our own identities and capacities, which are shaped by what Abrams calls “contingencies”—social phenomena over which we have varying degrees of control. Contingencies include such things as the social conditions under which we come of age, the condition of our household’s economy, the ideologies available to help us make sense of our situation, and accidental circumstances. The ways in which contingencies affect our individual or group identities create a structure of forces within which we are able to act, and that partially determines the sorts of actions we are able to perform.
In Abrams analysis, historical structuring, like social structuring, is manifold and unremitting. To understand it, historical sociologists must extract from it certain significant episodes, or events, that their methodology can then analyze and interpret. According to Abrams, these events are points at which action and contingency meet, points that represent a cross section of the specific social and individual forces in play at a given time. At such moments, individuals stand forth as agents of history not simply because they possess a unique ability to act, but also because in them we see the force of the specific social conditions that allowed their actions to come forth. Individuals can “make their mark” on history, yet in individuals one also finds the convergence of wider social forces. In order to capture the various facets of this mutual interaction, Abrams recommends a fourfold structure to which he believes the investigations of historical sociologists should conform: first, description of the event itself; second, discussion of the social context that helped bring the event about and gave it significance; third, summary of the life history of the individual agent in the event; and fourth, analysis of the consequences of the event both for history and for the individual.
Abrams also sees history as the result of structuring. People, both individually and as members of collectives, make history. But our making of history is itself formed and informed not only by the historical conditions we inherit from the past, but also by the prior formation of our own identities and capacities, which are shaped by what Abrams calls “contingencies”—social phenomena over which we have varying degrees of control. Contingencies include such things as the social conditions under which we come of age, the condition of our household’s economy, the ideologies available to help us make sense of our situation, and accidental circumstances. The ways in which contingencies affect our individual or group identities create a structure of forces within which we are able to act, and that partially determines the sorts of actions we are able to perform.
In Abrams analysis, historical structuring, like social structuring, is manifold and unremitting. To understand it, historical sociologists must extract from it certain significant episodes, or events, that their methodology can then analyze and interpret. According to Abrams, these events are points at which action and contingency meet, points that represent a cross section of the specific social and individual forces in play at a given time. At such moments, individuals stand forth as agents of history not simply because they possess a unique ability to act, but also because in them we see the force of the specific social conditions that allowed their actions to come forth. Individuals can “make their mark” on history, yet in individuals one also finds the convergence of wider social forces. In order to capture the various facets of this mutual interaction, Abrams recommends a fourfold structure to which he believes the investigations of historical sociologists should conform: first, description of the event itself; second, discussion of the social context that helped bring the event about and gave it significance; third, summary of the life history of the individual agent in the event; and fourth, analysis of the consequences of the event both for history and for the individual.
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